Is it possible to make Jello using fresh pineapples instead of canned pineapples?

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project484_39.html

MATERIALS:

• Fresh pineapple, 1 (can be frozen and used later)
• Canned pineapple, 1
• Jello , 2 small boxes any flavor
• Bowl, 1
• Boiling & Cold water, 4 cups each
• Spoon, 1
• Paper cups
• Knife, 1

PROCEDURE: 
If students will eat the gelatin desserts, follow standard sanitary precautions. This is intended to be a demonstration lesson.

1. Cut the fresh pineapple into cubes.
2. Make Jello according to instructions on box.
3. Put one piece of canned pineapple into half of the paper cups and one piece of fresh pineapple into the other half of the cups.
4. Refrigerate until set. It usually takes longer than one period.
5. Assign homework: "Which Jello would you like tomorrow and why?" or some sort of variation on that theme.
6. Serve and observe.
7. Follow-up question: "What is meat tenderizer and what does it do?"

How does heat affect the coagulation of eggs?

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project493_39.html

Procedure:

1. Scald milk in double boiler.
2. Beat egg slightly (white and yolk should be thoroughly mixed but not foamy.)
3. Stir sugar and salt gradually into egg.
4. Pour scalded milk into egg-sugar mixture, stirring constantly.
5. Add 1/4 tsp. vanilla and stir.

Pour the mixture into two custard cups and cook according to the directions given below for the appropriate treatment. Each formulation makes 2 custards. Your TA will help members of your group decide which treatments to make. Each group should make all treatments.

Preparation of custards.

1. Oven Control
   1. Preheat oven to 350°F.
   2. Prepare custard mixture as directed above.
   3. Set custard cup in a Pyrex baker as deep as the custard cup.
   4. Fill the baker with hot water to the level of the custard in the cup. Place in oven.
   5. Bake until the tip of a sharp knife inserted halfway between the center and edge of the custard comes out clean. (Approx. 40-50 min.)
   6. Remove immediately from hot water and place on a rack to cool, then evaluate custard.
2. Oven Variation:

   Into a 350°F oven as in the Oven Control but without doing Step 4. Remove when a knife inserted into the custard comes out clean. Record the baking time.

3. 2 Egg Variation: (bake in an oven as in Oven Control.)

   Prepare custard according to the basic mixture, using 96 g of whole egg (2 eggs).

4. Microwave

   Cover the custard cup with plastic wrap. Poke a few holes in the plastic to allow steam to escape. Adjust microwave time and power to get the best product you can.

What factors affect the yield and composition of meat after cooking?

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project488_39.html

. Procedure

1. Shape 120 grams of ground beef into a round patty 1.0 cm. thick. (This is a rather thin patty.)
2. Cover part of a broiler pan with aluminum foil and poke holes in the foil to let the fat drip through.
3. Turn on the broiler in the oven and place the broiler pan in the oven so the top of the meat is about 9 cm. from the coil. (This will probably be the second rack slot down.) Leave the door of the oven part way open.
4. Cook the patty until either medium or well-done.

   	Medium-done - broil until the center of the patty is a pinkish-brown color (about 10 min. - 5 min. on each side.)
   	Well-done - broil until the center of the patty has no evidence of pink (about 16 min. - 8 min. on each side)

5. Weigh the cooked patty immediately after cooking, place on a plate and cut in half.
6. Calculate yield percent as follows: (cooked weight/starting weight) x 100
7. Report yield and observe color and firmness. Tasting is not necessary and not advisable for the medium-done patties.

How does the sugar concentration vary in different brands of apple juices?

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project873_39.html

Materials

Quantity Item Description

 5 mL of the following nine juices:

-Martinelli's Apple Juice

-Juicy Juice Apple Juice

-Washington's Natural Apple Juice

-Seneca Apple Juice

-Minute Maid Apple Juice

-Tree Top Apple Juice

-Tree Top Apple Raspberry Juice

-Tree Top Apple Grape Juice

-Tree Top Apple Pear Juice

1 Pair of Scissors

9 HPLC Vials

9 HPLC Vial Lids

9 Disposable Glass Pipettes

1 Pipette Bulb

1 Carousel

1 High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph

9 Straws

1 Automatic Refractometer

---

Procedures

 High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph:

1. Go to the store and buy all juice.

2. Go to the lab and gather all materials.

3. Label all the juice with numbers.

4. Label all the HPLC vials with the corresponding numbers.

5. Open the first juice and use a glass pipette to fill the HPLC vial

about 2/3 full of juice.

6. Get a new glass pipette and repeat step 5 for the remaining eight

juices.

7. Screw the lids on the HPLC vials and put them into the carousel.

8. Put the carousel into the High Pressure Liquid Chromatograph

and push start.

Refractometer:

1. Stick a straw into the juice, clamp thumb over the end of the straw

and pull it out.

2. Bring the straw over the refractometer and take the thumb off the

end of the straw (juice should drip out).

3. Push Run and record the data.

4. Clean off the refractometer with Kimwipes®.

Get a new straw and repeat steps 1-4 for the rest of the juice.

Levels of carbohydrates in different varieties of milk

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project1150_39.html

-    13g of non-fat powdered milk
-    100ml of soy milk
-    3 beakers
-    1 hot plate
-    1 thermometer
-    1 bottle 10% acetic acid
-    1 stirring rod
-    12 grams of calcium carbonate
-    Water
-    6 pieces of filter paper
-    300ml of ethanol
-    3 Erlenmeyer flask
-    1 digital weighing scale

Procedure

1.    For this science fair project, the independent variable is the type of milk used. The dependent variable is the amount of lactose crystals formed, which will be determined by weighing the crystals with a digital weighing scale. The constants (control variables) are the temperature of the environment (which will remain at room temperature), the amount of milk used and the process of extracting the lactose.

2.    Label the 3 beakers as milk, powder milk and soy milk. Label the 3 Erlenmeyer flasks in the same way.

3.    Pour the low fat milk and soy milk into their respective beakers. In the last beaker, mix 13g of powdered milk into 87ml of warm water. Place the 3 beakers on a hot plate, and bring the temperature of the liquids in the beakers to 55°C. Check the temperatures with a thermometer.

4.    While stirring the milk in the beakers, add drops of acetic acid till the liquids turn colourless and a mass of casein protein forms in each beaker.

5.    Remove the casein and add 4 grams of calcium carbonate to the remaining clear liquid in each beaker. Stir for a few minutes.

6.    Increase the temperature of the hot plate to bring the liquid in the beakers to a boil. Stir the liquid in each beaker with a stirring rod. The remaining proteins will precipitate. Filter the solutions into their respective Erlenmeyer flasks and continue heating until only 25ml of solution is left.

7.    Add 100ml of ethanol to the 25ml of solution in each Erlenmeyer flask, and allow to cool. Filter the liquids again. Heat the liquids in their Erlenmeyer flasks, then allow to cool slowly.

8.    As the solutions cool, lactose crystals will form in each Erlenmeyer flask. Collect these crystals and measure their weights with the digital weighing scale. Record each measurement in a table, as shown below.

Effectiveness of garlic in fighting bacteria

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project1098_39_2.html

• 300ml milk
• 1 measurement cup (to measure 100ml of milk)
• 5 pieces garlic ground and juice extracted( approximately 5ml)
• 3 test tubes
• 4 syringes
• Escherichia coli (E. Coli) specimen
• 2 tooth picks
• 1 permanent marker pen

Procedure

1.  For this experiment, the independent variable is the composition of the test specimen. The dependent variable is the growth of the bacteria colony. This is determined by measuring the size of the growth using a ruler. The constants (control variables) are the room temperature, the amount of sunlight and the ingredients in the petri dish agar.

2.  The petri dish prepared with the blood agar must be stored in a refrigerator. Before the start of the experiment, remove the petri dish from the refrigerator to allow it to reach room temperature.

3.  Three test specimens are made and labeled as described below:

4.  Specimen A - 100 ml of milk is measured using the measuring cup and poured into test tube A. With the marker pen, label this test tube A

5.  Specimen B - 100 ml of milk is measured using the measuring cup and poured into test tube B. With the marker pen, label this test tube B. Using a toothpick, add a small amount of E. Coli specimen to test tube B. Shake the test tube to mix the specimen thoroughly.

6.  Specimen C - 100 ml of milk is measured using the measuring cup and poured into test tube C. With the marker pen, label this test tube C Using a toothpick, add a small amount of E. Coli specimen to test tube C. Next, add the extracted garlic juice to test tube C. The test tube is shaken to mix the specimen.

7.  The specimens in test tubes A, B and C are allowed to incubate for 2 hours.

8.  Mark the 3 petri dishes - A, B and C. Remove the lid and using the syringe, extract 10 ml of the sample mixture from test tube A and place it in the center of petri dish A.

9.  Use a new syringe to extract a 10 ml sample from test tube B and place it in dish B and repeat for test tube C/dish C.

10.  Replace the petri dish lids and store the petri dishes in a cool and shaded place.

11.  The diameter of the E. Coli colony is measured everyday for 5 days and recorded in the table below.

These are just ideas

I've been very busy with college applications, school, SAT's and job searches lately. But as soon as i am done with it all, i'll be trying out some of the experimental procedures i listed today.

Which Orange Juice Has the Most Vitamin C?

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Chem_p044.shtml#materials

• Orange Juice Titration Kit (1). Includes:
  • Juicer for extracting juice from oranges
  • Cheesecolth
  • Vitamin C tablets, 250-mg
  • Masking tape
  • Permanent marker
  • Chemical splash goggles
  • 2% Lugol's iodine solution (30 mL); also available from Amazon.com
  • Soluble starch (30 g)
  • Small funnel (do not use for food after using it for chemistry)
  • 50 mL graduated cylinder
  • 500 mL graduated cylinder
  • 50 mL Ehrlenmeyer flask
  • 50 mL burette
  • Ring stand
  • Burette clamp
  • Lab apron
  • Eyedropper (a transfer pipette or medicine dropper would work too)
  • Nitrile gloves (rubber or latex would work too)
  • Measuring spoons (a balance accurate to the 0.1 gram would also work)
  • 100 mL beaker
  • Glass bottle, amber. Iodine is light sensitive and needs to be stored, once mixed, in an amber glass bottle or in an aluminum foil covered bottle.

You will also need to gather these items:

• Samples of three different kinds of orange juice:
  • Home-made fresh-squeezed (which means you'll need to buy some oranges)
  • Premium not-from-concentrate juice (e.g. Tropicana® or Florida's Natural®)
  • Made from frozen concentrate (following instructions on the concentrate can)
• Distilled water; available in the bottled water section of most grocery stores

1. Do your background research so that you are knowledgeable about the terms, concepts, and questions, above.
2. Wear gloves, chemical safety goggles, and a lab coat or apron when using the iodine solutions in this experiment.
3. Dilute the Lugol's solution 1:10 in distilled water to make your iodine titration solution.
   1. Pour the 30 mL Lugol's solution into the 500 mL graduated cylinder.
   2. Add enough distilled water to bring the total fluid volume to 300 mL and mix.
   3. Store the solution in a clean, tightly covered glass jar that is clearly labeled. Store it in a location that is protected from light.
   4. Rinse and dry the 500 mL graduated cylinder.
4. Make a starch indicator solution.
   1. This can be anywhere from 0.5 to 1.0%. The exact amount of starch is not critical.
   2. For a 0.5% solution, add 1 g (which is equivalent to 1/4 teaspoon) of soluble starch to 200 mL of near-boiling distilled water.
   3. Stir to dissolve, and allow to cool.
   4. When cool, store the starch solution in a clean, tightly covered glass jar that is clearly labeled.
   5. Rinse and dry the 500 mL graduated cylinder.
5. Make a fresh vitamin C standard solution (1 mg/mL). Do this on each day that you make vitamin C measurements from orange juice.
   1. You will use this solution to "standardize" your iodine titration solution. You will measure how much of your iodine solution it takes to oxidize a known amount of vitamin C. You can then use your iodine titration solution to determine the amount of vitamin C from test samples of juice from oranges.
   2. Crush a 250 mg vitamin C tablet, and dissolve it in 100 mL of distilled water.
   3. Pour into a graduated cylinder and add distilled water to bring the total volume to 250 mL.
6. Titrate 25 mL of vitamin C standard solution.
   1. Use a clean 50 mL graduated cylinder to measure 20 mL of vitamin C standard solution.
   2. Pour this into a 50 mL Ehrlenmeyer flask (the shape of this flask allows you to swirl the solution to mix it without spilling).
   3. Add 10 drops of starch indicator solution.
   4. Set up the 50 mL buret on the the ringstand.
   5. Use a funnel to carefully fill the buret with your iodine titration solution. Tip: the fluid level should not be past the graduated markings on the buret.
   6. Write down the initial volume of the iodine titration solution in the buret.
   7. Place the Ehrlenmeyer flask (containing the vitamin C and starch solutions) under the buret.
   8. Carefully release the spring clamp of the buret to add iodine solution drop by drop.
   9. Swirl the flask to mix in the iodine solution after each addition.
   10. The titration is complete when the iodine creates a blue-back color in the solution that lasts for longer than 20 seconds.
   11. Record the final volume of the iodine solution in the buret.
   12. The difference between the initial volume and the final volume is the amount of iodine titration solution needed to oxidize the vitamin C.
   13. Repeat this step three times. You should get results that agree within about 0.1 mL.
7. Here's how to prepare fresh-squeezed orange for testing.
   1. Use a juicer to squeeze orange juice from two (or more) oranges.
   2. You need 20 mL of juice per titration, and you should do at least three titrations per storage condition, for a total of 60 mL.
   3. Filter the orange juice through cheesecloth to remove any pulp and seeds.
8. Titrating an orange juice sample is quite similar to titrating the vitamin C standard. Here are the steps:
   1. Tip: if any of the orange juice samples contain pulp, filter them through clean cheesecloth before doing the titration.
   2. Use a clean 50 mL graduated cylinder to measure 20 mL of the fresh-squeezed juice.
   3. Pour this into a 50 mL Ehrlenmeyer flask (the shape of this flask allows you to swirl the solution to mix it without spilling).
   4. Add 10 drops of starch indicator solution.
   5. Set up the 50 mL buret on the the ringstand.
   6. Fill the buret nearly full with your iodine titration solution.
   7. Write down the initial volume of the iodine titration solution in the buret.
   8. Place the Ehrlenmeyer flask (containing the vitamin C and starch solutions) under the buret.
   9. Carefully release the spring clamp of the buret to add iodine solution drop by drop.
   10. Swirl the flask to mix in the iodine solution after each addition.
   11. The titration is complete when the iodine creates a distinct color change in the juice/starch solution. This color change will be harder to see than with the vitamin C solution, since the juice starts out orange. The color will change from orange to grayish brown when the endpoint is reached. If you continue to add iodine, the color will darken further. You want to note the volume of iodine added when the color first changes.
   12. Record the final volume of the iodine solution in the buret.
   13. The difference between the initial volume and the final volume is the amount of iodine titration solution needed to oxidize the vitamin C.
   14. Repeat this step three times. You should get results that agree within about 0.1 mL.
9. For each juice (fresh, premium, or from-concentrate), calculate the average amount of iodine needed to titrate a 20 mL sample.
10. You can calculate the amount vitamin C in your samples by setting up a proportion. Here's an example (with made-up numbers) to show you how:
    1. Let's say that it took an average of 8.5 mL of iodine solution to titrate 20 mL of 1 mg/mL vitamin C standard solution, which means 20 mg vitamin C total.
    2. Let's also say it takes an average of 6.8 mL of iodine solution to titrate a 20 mL test sample of orange juice.
    3. We'll call the amount of vitamin C in the orange juice sample x. You can find what x is with the following equation:
       
       X = (6.8 mg/ml)*(20 mg)/(8.5ml) = 16.0 mg
       
11. Did one type of orange juice have more vitamin C than the others? Can you explain your results?

From Bitter to Sweet: How Sugar Content Changes in Ripening Fruit

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/FoodSci_p063.shtml#materials

Materials and Equipment

• Bananas, unripe (5 per trial; 3 trials)
• Metal dinner fork and knife
• Dinner plate
• Cheesecloth
• Scissors
• Refractomete

1. To begin, collect five unripe bananas. Choose five bananas that are similar in size and that are all unripe. The bananas should be as similar to each other as possible. The pieces of fruit should be unripe when you take your first reading at the start the procedure and very ripe for the last reading.
2. Read the directions that came with your refractometer.
3. On the day you purchase them, cut off a section of one of the unripe bananas that is about 3 inches in length.
4. Place the banana section on the plate and mash it thoroughly with a fork.
5. Cut a 6-inch square of cheesecloth.
6. Place about one-third of the chopped banana in the cheesecloth and squeeze out a few drops of juice onto the lens of the refractometer.
7. Squeeze slowly so that the juice has time to flow through the cloth. As an alternative, you can wipe the surface of the wet cloth on the glass of the refractometer.
8. Read the sugar content of the unripe banana. Record the data in a data table in your lab notebook. Be sure to note the trial number, condition of the fruit, date, and sugar content (in Brix). Discard the fruit in the cheesecloth.
9. Repeat steps 4–7 with the remaining freshly mashed banana two more times. Use new cheesecloth and banana for each reading. You should have three separate readings for each piece of fruit.
10. Repeat steps 4–7 for the remaining pieces of fruit, as they ripen, as follows. Note: You might want to modify the days on which you take your Brix readings, depending on how quickly the fruit is ripening.
1. Day 2: Test the second piece of fruit.
2. Day 4: Test the third piece of fruit.
3. Day 6: Test the fourth piece of fruit.
4. Day 8: Test the last piece of fruit.
11. Perform the entire procedure two more times. This demonstrates that your results are repeatable. The tests can be run concurrently.
12. Average the degrees Brix for each day and record these numbers in your lab notebook.
13. Graph the time, in days, on the x-axis and the degrees Brix on the y-axis.

Do Oranges Lose or Gain Vitamin C After Being Picked?

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/Chem_p043.shtml#summary

• Orange Juice Titration Kit (1). Includes:
  • Juicer for extracting juice from oranges
  • Cheesecolth
  • Vitamin C tablets, 250-mg
  • Masking tape
  • Permanent marker
  • Chemical splash goggles
  • 2% Lugol's iodine solution (30 mL); also available from Amazon.com
  • Soluble starch (30 g)
  • Small funnel (do not use for food after using it for chemistry)
  • 50 mL graduated cylinder
  • 500 mL graduated cylinder
  • 50 mL Ehrlenmeyer flask
  • 50 mL burette
  • Ring stand
  • Burette clamp
  • Lab apron
  • Eyedropper (a transfer pipette or medicine dropper would work too)
  • Nitrile gloves (rubber or latex would work too)
  • Measuring spoons (a balance accurate to the 0.1 gram would also work)
  • 100 mL beaker
  • Glass bottle, amber. Iodine is light sensitive and needs to be stored, once mixed, in an amber glass bottle or in an aluminum foil covered bottle.

You will also need to gather these items:

• About 10–12 juicing oranges (or other citrus fruit)
  • Ideally, you would have access to a citrus tree with ripe fruit for the duration of the project.
  • The next-best option is to use a big batch of store-bought citrus fruit. Use the procedure described below to measure the vitamin C content of citrus fruit stored for various lengths of time.
  • You'll get better juice yield if you buy juicing oranges, not eating oranges.
• Distilled water; available in the bottled water section of most grocery stores

1. Do your background research so that you are knowledgeable about the terms, concepts, and questions, above.
2. Wear gloves, chemical safety goggles, and a lab coat or apron when using the iodine solutions in this experiment.
3. Dilute the Lugol's solution 1:10 in distilled water to make your iodine titration solution. (Note: if you purchased the iodine solution for starch test, you can skip this step.)
   1. Pour the 30 mL Lugol's solution into the 500 mL graduated cylinder.
   2. Add enough distilled water to bring the total fluid volume to 300 mL and mix.
   3. Store the solution in a clean, tightly covered glass jar that is clearly labeled. Store it in a location that is protected from light.
   4. Rinse and dry the 500 mL graduated cylinder.
4. Make a starch indicator solution.
   1. This can be anywhere from 0.5 to 1.0%. The exact amount of starch is not critical.
   2. For a 0.5% solution, add 1 g (which is equivalent to 1/4 teaspoon) of soluble starch to 200 mL of near-boiling distilled water.
   3. Stir to dissolve, and allow to cool.
   4. When cool, store the starch solution in a clean, tightly covered glass jar that is clearly labeled.
   5. Rinse and dry the 500 mL graduated cylinder.
5. Make a fresh vitamin C standard solution (1 mg/mL). Do this on each day that you make vitamin C measurements from oranges.
   1. You will use this solution to "standardize" your iodine titration solution. You will measure how much of your iodine solution it takes to oxidize a known amount of vitamin C. You can then use your iodine titration solution to determine the amount of vitamin C from test samples of juice from oranges.
   2. Crush a 250-mg vitamin C tablet, and dissolve it in 100 mL of distilled water.
   3. Pour into a graduated cylinder and add distilled water to bring the total volume to 250 mL.
6. Titrate 25 mL of vitamin C standard solution.
   1. Use a clean 50 mL graduated cylinder to measure 20 mL of vitamin C standard solution.
   2. Pour this into a 50 mL Ehrlenmeyer flask (the shape of this flask allows you to swirl the solution to mix it without spilling).
   3. Add 10 drops of starch indicator solution.
   4. Set up the 50 mL buret on the ringstand.
   5. Use a funnel to carefully fill the buret with your iodine titration solution. Tip: the fluid level should not be past the graduated markings on the buret.
   6. Write down the initial volume of the iodine titration solution in the buret.
   7. Place the Ehrlenmeyer flask (containing the vitamin C and starch solutions) under the buret.
   8. Carefully release the spring clamp of the buret to add iodine solution drop by drop.
   9. Swirl the flask to mix in the iodine solution after each addition.
   10. The titration is complete when the iodine creates a blue-back color in the solution that lasts for longer than 20 seconds.
   11. Record the final volume of the iodine solution in the buret.
   12. The difference between the initial volume and the final volume is the amount of iodine titration solution needed to oxidize the vitamin C.
   13. Repeat this step three times. You should get results that agree within about 0.1 mL.
7. Pick (or buy) 10–12 juice oranges. You will measure the vitamin C content of two oranges on the day of picking (day 1) and on days 2, 4, 8, and 14.
8. Prepare fresh-squeezed orange juice samples.
   1. Use a juicer to squeeze orange juice from two oranges.
   2. You need 20 mL of juice per titration, and you should do at least three titrations per storage condition, for a total of 60 mL.
   3. Filter the orange juice through cheesecloth to remove any pulp and seeds.
9. Titrating an orange juice sample is quite similar to titrating the vitamin C standard. Here are the steps:
   1. Use a clean 50 mL graduated cylinder to measure 20 mL of the fresh-squeezed juice.
   2. Pour this into a 50 mL Ehrlenmeyer flask (the shape of this flask allows you to swirl the solution to mix it without spilling).
   3. Add 10 drops of starch indicator solution.
   4. Set up the 50 mL buret on the ringstand.
   5. Fill the buret nearly full with your iodine titration solution.
   6. Write down the initial volume of the iodine titration solution in the buret.
   7. Place the Ehrlenmeyer flask (containing the vitamin C and starch solutions) under the buret.
   8. Carefully release the spring clamp of the buret to add iodine solution drop by drop.
   9. Swirl the flask to mix in the iodine solution after each addition.
   10. The titration is complete when the iodine creates a distinct color change in the juice/starch solution. This color change will be harder to see than with the vitamin C solution, since the juice starts out orange. The color will change from orange to grayish brown when the endpoint is reached. If you continue to add iodine, the color will darken further. You want to note the volume of iodine added when the color first changes.
   11. Record the final volume of the iodine solution in the buret.
   12. The difference between the initial volume and the final volume is the amount of iodine titration solution needed to oxidize the vitamin C.
   13. Repeat this step three times. You should get results that agree within about 0.1 mL.
10. You can calculate the amount vitamin C in your samples by setting up a proportion. Here's an example (with made-up numbers) to show you how:
    1. Let's say that it took 8.5 mL of iodine solution to titrate 20 mL of 1 mg/mL vitamin C standard solution, which means 20 mg vitamin C total.
    2. Let's also say it takes 6.8 mL of iodine solution to titrate a 20 mL test sample of orange juice.
    3. We'll call the amount of vitamin C in the orange juice sample x. You can find what x is with the following equation:
       
       
       X = (6.8 mg/mL) * (20 mg)/(8.5 mL) = 16.0 mg
       
11. From your results, which oranges had the most vitamin C?

Burning Calories: How Much Energy is Stored in Different Types of Food?

http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/FoodSci_p012.shtml#procedure

Materials and Equipment

A project kit containing most of the items needed for this science project is available for puchase from AquaPhoenix Education. Alternatively, you can gather the materials yourself using this shopping list:

• homemade calorimeter, (for diagram and instructions on assembling, see Experimental Procedure, below) requires:
  • two tin cans, one larger than the other,
  • wood dowel, pencil or other rod-shaped support,
  • cork,
  • needle or wire,
  • hammer and nail,
• graduated cylinder,
• water (preferably distilled),
• thermometer (calibrated in °C, range 20–100 or greater),
• safety glasses,
• lighter or matches,
• scale (calibrated in grams, for determining energy content per gram of food), such as the Fast Weigh MS-500-BLK Digital Pocket Scale, 500 by 0.1 G, available from Amazon.com
• food items to test (dry items will obviously work better), for example:
• roasted cashew nuts, peanuts or other whole nuts,
• pieces of popcorn,
• marshmallows,
• small pieces of bread,
• dry pet food.

1. Constructing the calorimeter (refer to the diagram above).
   1. Select two cans to build your calorimeter. They should nest inside one another. The smaller can needs to sit high enough so that you can place the cork, needle and food item beneath it.
   2. Remove the top and bottom from a coffee (or similar-sized) can, so that you have a cylinder open on both ends.
   3. Use a hammer and nail to make holes in the bottom (to allow air to in to sustain the flame).
   4. Punch holes at opposite sides of the smaller can for the support to pass through. The diagram labels the support as a glass rod, but you can use a wood dowel, a pencil, or a metal rod for the support. Your support needs to be longer than the width of your large can.
   5. Grasp the needle (or wire) and push its blunt end into the cork. You will impale the food to be tested on the sharp end of the needle. (If you use wire, you can wrap it around the food item to be tested. Don't use insulated wire!)
   6. The smaller can will hold the water to be heated by burning the food samples. Use the graduated cylinder to measure how much water you use; the can should be about half-full. Put the supporting rod in place through the two holes.

Figure 2. A top down view of the homemade calorimeter is shown here.

2. Weigh each of the food items to be tested and record the weight.
3. Fill the small can about half-way with a measured amount of distilled water.
4. Measure the initial temperature (T_i) of the water.
5. Impale the food item on the needle (or wrap the wire around it).
6. Have your calorimeter pieces close at hand, and ready for use. For more information on how to properly weigh items see Chemistry Lab Techniques.
7. Place the cork on a non-flammable surface. Light the food item (the nuts may take awhile to catch fire).
8. When the food catches fire, immediately place the large can around the cork, then carefully place the smaller can in place above the flame.
9. Allow the food item to burn itself out.
10. Carefully remove the small can by holding the ends of the supporting rod, and place it on a flat, heat-proof surface. The can will be hot, so be careful.
11. Carefully stir the water and measure the final temperature (T_f). Make sure the thermometer has reached a steady level before recording the value.
12. When the burnt food item has cooled, carefully remove it from the needle (or wire) and weigh the remains.
13. Repeat steps 2–13 for all of the food items. It's a good idea to repeat the measurement with multiple samples of each food item, to insure consistent results.
14. Analyze your data. Calculate the energy released per individual food item (in calories and Calories), and the energy per unit weight of each food item (in calories/gram and Calories/gram). From your individual results, calculate average values for each food type.

Questions

• Which food type released the most energy per gram?
• Can you calculate the average energy (in Calories) for each type of food item you tested?
• Do you think the amount of Calories you measured is likely to be higher or lower than the true value for each food item? Why?

Diet and Memory: Is There a Connection?

http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/diet-memory-connection/

Research Question:

• Does diet have any effect on memory?

Some fruits, vegetables, grains and fish are believed to be able to improve the health of your brain. A diet that is rich in these foods may improve your ability to remember and may even protect against diseases like Alzheimer’s. In this experiment, you will evaluate whether or not a diet that is supplemented with these brain-enhancing foods can help improve memory.

Materials:

• "Memory-boosting” food (e.g., cruciferous vegetables, leafy green vegetables, red/purple fruits and vegetables, onions, fish, and food rich in folic acid)
• Approximately 30 test subjects
• Computer
• Printer
• Notebook for analyzing results

Experimental Procedure:

1. Research food that is believed to improve memory.
2. Create several memory tests to give participants. Example tests include the following: Read a list of 25 items. After 10 minutes, ask participants to write down as many of these items as they can remember; Show a picture containing many items. Allow participants to study it for 1 minute. After an hour, ask test subjects to list items that they observed in the picture; Ask test subjects to describe the weather from each day over the past week.
3. Ask test subjects to take your memory tests. Record the results from each test.
4. Ask half of your test subjects to change their diet for approximately 3 weeks to include an increased amount of memory-enhancing food. Ask this group to keep a food diary so that you have an idea of how well each test subject adhered to their “new” diet. The other half of your test subjects should follow their usual diet.
5. After 3 weeks ask all of your test subjects to repeat the memory tests. Change each test slightly so that they are not the same as they were before. Analyze the new tests. How much of an effect (if any) does food/diet appear to have on memory? Do those who altered their diets perform better on your memory tests compared to the group that continued their normal diet?

Are Fungi Plants?

http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/are-fungi-plants/

Research Question:

• How are fungi different from green plants?
• What is the difference between sugar and starch?
• What is a chemical indicator?
• What happens when Benedict’s solution reacts with sugar?
• What happens when iodine reacts with starch?

Materials:

• Store-bought mushrooms
• Iodine (available from drug store or scientific supply outlet)
• Sugar
• Measuring spoon or graduated cylinder
• Benedict’s solution (available from scientific supply outlet)
• Paring knife
• Kitchen stove
• Small saucepan for heating mushrooms
• Green leaves
• White sugar
• Scissors

Procedure for Experiment #1

1. Slice the mushroom lengthwise.
2. Using an eyedropper place eight to ten drops of iodine on the interior surface of the mushroom.
3. Write down your observation. Do you think there was more starch or sugar in the mushrooms?

Procedure for Experiment #2

1. Put a half cup of water into a saucepan. Add one tbsp. of sugar and one tbsp of Benedict’s solution and stir.
2. Heat to a low simmer.
3. Carefully pour the hot water into a two-cup measuring cup. Did you observe any changes in color? Record your observations.

Procedure for Experiment #3

1. Dice four or five small mushrooms into very small pieces.
2. Put the mushrooms in a small saucepan. Add three-fourths cup water and 20 ml (approximately 1.5 tablespoons) Benedict’s solution to the saucepan
3. Bring the mushrooms to a simmer. Continue simmering for five minutes.
4. Turn off the stove. Decant the water into a clear glass measuring cup. Was there a color change? Write down your observations. What do you deduce from what you observed?

Procedure for Experiment #4

Repeat experiment #4, using eight to ten green leaves instead of mushrooms. The leaves should be collected first thing in the morning, and the experiment should be performed immediately thereafter. Using a scissor, cut the leaves in small pieces about a centimeter wide before covering them with water.

How Does Microwave Radiation Affect Different Organisms?

http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/microwave-radiation-affect-different-organisms/

Research Questions:

• Does microwave radiation destroy all life?
• Will varying lengths of radiation affect organisms differently?

Microwave ovens blast food with high levels of energy. This results in heating up certain fats and other ingredients in food. The energy simply passes through other substances without damage. Through this experiment, we will see how this energy affects simple organisms of different types.

Materials:

• Packet of radish seeds
• Paper towels
• Four small containers filled with sterilized potting soil
• Four packets of bakers’ yeast
• Four small bowls
• Four prepared Petri dishes with agar (available from biological supply companies)
• Sterilized swabs
• Gloves
• Microwave
• Notepad and pen
• Camera

Experimental Procedure:

1. Plant several radish seeds in a small container. Put them in a sunny, warm location. This is the control sample.
2. Place several more radish seeds on a paper towel. Microwave the seeds for five seconds.
3. Plant these seeds in another pot and place in the same location as the control group.
4. Repeat Step 2 and 3 for two more samples, except microwave one group of seeds for fifteen seconds and the other for thirty seconds.
5. Tend the samples by watering the pots once a day and ensuring they get enough sunlight.
6. Take pictures everyday and note if and how quickly the samples grow.
7. Dump a packet of bakers’ yeast into a small bowl of warm water. Stir. This is the control sample.
8. Take note of how long it takes for the yeast to bubble up and how vigorous the reaction is. Take photos.
9. Dump another packet of bakers’ yeast onto a plate. Microwave for five seconds.
10. Mix this yeast into another bowl of warm water. Repeat Step 8.
11. Repeat steps 9 and 10 for the other packets of yeast, except microwave one sample for fifteen seconds and the other for thirty seconds.
12. Wearing gloves, use the sterilized swab to collect a sample of bacteria and swab it on a prepared Petri dish. Good places to find bacteria are areas where lots of people touch something, like doorknobs or faucets. Seal the dish and label it “control.” Put it in a warm, dark place. This is your control sample.
13. Swab another sample from the exact location as the control sample. Smear it on another Petri dish. Seal and label the dish. Place it in a warm, dark place.
14. Repeat Step 13 for the other two samples.
15. Let the samples alone overnight.
16. Take one sample out (not the control) and microwave it for five seconds. Place it back in the warm, dark place.
17. Repeat Step 16 for the other two samples, except microwave one for fifteen seconds and the other for thirty seconds.
18. After another day, take out all the samples. Note how many colonies of bacteria are growing and their size.
19. Analyze all this data. Does microwave radiation affect all life equally? Does time matter? How does each type of organism respond to the radiation?

How Does Diet Affect Your Body Temperature?

http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/does-diet-affect-body-temperature/

Research Questions:

• Can diet change basal body temperature?
• Which foods can change the temperature of my body?

Certain elements in a diet are believed to be able to increase a person’s basal body temperature and, as a result, improve metabolism. This experiment will evaluate whether simple diet modifications are truly able to increase body temperature.

Materials:

• Basal thermometer
• Coconut oil and other temperature-elevating food you identify in your research
• Notebook for recording and analyzing results

Experimental Procedure:

1. Record your basal body temperature each morning when you wake up. Be sure to take your temperature before getting out of bed. Record temperatures for approximately 2 months to get an accurate view of your average basal body temperature.
2. Research diets believed to increase basal body temperature. For example, you should be sure to drink plenty of fluids, cook with coconut oil, increase protein intake, and eat complex, high-fiber carbohydrates.
3. Follow your new diet for approximately 2 months.
4. Record your basal body temperature each morning for the duration of the experiment.
5. Analyze your results. Do you notice changes in your body temperature after beginning your new diet? How quickly do changes take place? Does your temperature return to its starting level when you stop the diet?

Does Caffeine Enhance Athletic Performance?

http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/caffeine-enhance-athletic-performance/

Research Questions:

• Does caffeine help people run faster?
• Does caffeine help improve hand-eye coordination?
• Does caffeine improve strength?

This experiment will evaluate whether caffeine helps test subjects improve athletic performance. You will evaluate if test subjects that have had caffeine are able to run faster, throw a ball farther, or make more putts.

Materials:

• Approximately 20 test subjects
• 10 cups of caffeinated coffee
• 10 cups of decaffeinated coffee
• Track
• Baseball
• Measuring tape
• Distance markers
• Golf club
• Golf ball
• Cup
• Stopwatch
• Notebook for recording and analyzing results

Experimental Procedure:

1. Recruit similar test subjects for your study. For example, select teenage males in approximately the same weight range. Ask all test subjects to complete the athletic tests in the morning on an empty stomach.
2. Use your measuring tape to mark off increments of distance in a field so that you can easily determine how far a ball is thrown.
3. Ask a test subject to run a 50 yard dash.
4. Record the time it takes for the run to be completed.
5. Ask a test subject to throw a baseball three times.
6. Record how far the ball is thrown each time.
7. Ask a test subject to putt a ball into a cup that is ten feet away. Repeat ten times.
8. Record how many putts were made.
9. Ask the test subject to drink 100 mg of caffeine (one cup of coffee).
10. Wait 30 minutes and repeat steps 3-8.
11. Repeat steps 3-10 with nine other test subjects.
12. Now repeat the entire experiment with your other ten test subjects. This group will be given an equal volume of decaffeinated coffee. Do not tell either group whether they received the caffeinated drink or the non-caffeinated drink.
13. Analyze your results. Did the group that received caffeine perform better on the second round of athletic tests when compared to the control group that did not receive caffeine? Does caffeine appear to help test subjects improve performance on a certain type of athletic challenge (eg, running, throwing or putting)? What does this say about caffeine’s influence on speed, strength or hand-eye coordination?

Crystal Fudge

http://www.education.com/science-fair/article/crystal-fudge/

Research Question:

• Why do some rocks that are made out of the same minerals have different-sized crystals in them?
• What effect will faster vs. slower cooling have on the formation of crystals?

Fudge is one of very few desserts people make at home that is actually crystalline, or made out of crystals. This gives us a fun, tasty way to explore the process of crytalization.

Materials:

• Two bread pans (disposable 8” pie tins will also work)
• Butter to coat pans, or waxed paper
• Large saucepan (3-4 quart)
• Wooden spoon
• Candy thermometer
• Pastry brush
• Stove
• Refrigerator
• 3oz. unsweetened chocolate
• 3c sugar
• 1c warm half-and-half or evaporated whole milk
• 1T corn syrup ¼t salt
• 3T butter
• 2t vanilla extract
• 1c mix-ins of your choice: nuts, mini marshmallows, dried fruit… (optional)
• Magnifying glass

Experimental Procedure:

• Butter the pans or line them with the waxed paper.
• Mix the chocolate, sugar, salt, half-and-half, and corn syrup over medium-low heat. Keep stirring until the chocolate is melted and the fudge begins to boil. Note: the fudge is extremely hot at this point, handle with care!
• As soon as the fudge begins to boil, stop stirring and put the candy thermometer in. Clip it to the edge of the pot, making sure the tip isn’t touching the bottom.
• Let the fudge cook without any stirring until it reaches the soft-ball stage, around 237 degrees.
• While the fudge cooks, dip the pastry brush in a little warm water and use it to carefully wash any sugar/chocolate/whatever off the sides of the pot.
• Take the fudge off of the burner and let it cool, undisturbed, until it’s 150 degress.
• Add the vanilla and butter and keep stirring until the surface of the fudge starts to get dull. This can take a long time, but you need to keep stirring! Maybe you can get a partner to help.
• Once the fudge has begun to dull, stir in your add-ins, a quarter-cup at a time, if you’re using any. Make sure they’re at room temperature or a little warmer if possible.
• Spoon half of the fudge into each pan. Put one pan in the refrigerator and leave the other one out at room temperature. Allow both of them to cool completely.
• Cut each panful of fudge into one-inch cubes. Pick up a cube from each pan and examine them closely. Use your eyes and the magnifying glass: do you see any differences in texture? Use your tongue: does one seem more smooth and waxy while the other is more grainy? Is there a difference in flavor? The fudge that cooled more slowly, at room temperature, should be grainier and have noticeable sugar crystals in it. This is like a plutonic igneous rock that has cooled and solidified slowly, under the surface, like granite. The one that cooled more quickly, in the refrigerator, should be smoother and have much smaller crystals, probably too small for you to see even with the magnifying glass. This is like a volcanic igneous rock that cooled quickly above the earth’s surface, like obsidian.
• Now offer samples of each to your family and friends so they can decide which they like best!